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Includes bibliographical references.

Preface xv -- Acknowledgments xvii -- About the Author xix -- 1 A Brief History of Microwave Radio Fixed Point-to-Point (Relay) Communication Systems 1 -- 1.1 In the Beginning, 1 -- 1.2 Microwave Telecommunications Companies, 7 -- 1.3 Practical Applications, 10 -- 1.4 The Beat Goes On, 14 -- References, 16 -- 2 Regulation of Microwave Radio Transmissions 20 -- 2.1 Radio Frequency Management, 21 -- 2.2 Testing for Interference, 28 -- 2.3 Radio Paths by FCC Frequency Band in the United States, 29 -- 2.4 Influences in Frequency Allocation and Utilization Policy within the Western Hemisphere, 30 -- 2.4.1 United States of America (USA), 30 -- 2.4.2 Canada, 36 -- 2.5 FCC Fixed Radio Services, 36 -- 2.6 Site Data Accuracy Requirements, 41 -- 2.7 FCC Antenna Registration System (ASR) Registration Requirements, 42 -- 2.8 Engineering Microwave Paths Near Airports and Heliports, 44 -- 2.8.1 Airport Guidelines, 46 -- References, 47 -- 3 Microwave Radio Overview 48 -- 3.1 Introduction, 48 -- 3.2 Digital Signaling, 50 -- 3.3 Noise Figure, Noise Factor, Noise Temperature, and Front End Noise, 50 -- 3.4 Digital Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), 53 -- 3.5 Radio Transmitters and Receivers, 58 -- 3.6 Modulation Format, 60 -- 3.7 QAM Digital Radios, 65 -- 3.8 Channel Equalization, 68 -- 3.9 Channel Coding, 70 -- 3.10 Trellis Coded Modulation (TCM), 72 -- 3.11 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), 75 -- 3.12 Radio Configurations, 76 -- 3.12.1 Cross-Polarization Interference Cancellation (XPIC), 78 -- 3.13 Frequency Diversity and Multiline Considerations, 82 -- 3.14 Transmission Latency, 85 -- 3.15 Automatic Transmitter Power Control (ATPC), 87 -- 3.16 Current Trends, 87 -- 3.16.1 TDM (or ATM) over IP, 87 -- 3.16.2 TDM Synchronization over IP, 88 -- 3.16.3 Adaptive Modulation, 89 -- 3.16.4 Quality of Service (QoS) [Grade of Service (GoS) in Europe], 89 -- References, 90 -- 4 Radio Network Performance Objectives 96 -- 4.1 Customer Service Objectives, 96 -- 4.2 Maintenance Objectives, 96.

4.3 Commissioning Objectives, 98 -- 4.4 Design Objectives, 98 -- 4.4.1 Quality, 98 -- 4.4.2 Availability, 98 -- 4.5 Differences Between North American and European Radio System Objectives, 99 -- 4.5.1 North American Radio Engineering Standards (Historical Bell System Oriented), 99 -- 4.5.2 European Radio Engineering Standards (ITU Oriented), 99 -- 4.6 North American Telecommunications System Design Objectives, 100 -- 4.7 International Telecommunications System Design Objectives, 100 -- 4.7.1 Legacy European Microwave Radio Standards, 102 -- 4.7.2 Modern European Microwave Radio Standards, 102 -- 4.8 Engineering Microwave Paths to Design Objectives, 102 -- 4.9 Accuracy of Path Availability Calculations, 106 -- 4.9.1 Rain Fading, 106 -- 4.9.2 Multipath Fading, 106 -- 4.9.3 Dispersive Fading Outage, 107 -- 4.9.4 Diversity Improvement Factor, 107 -- 4.10 Impact of Flat Multipath Variability, 108 -- 4.11 Impact of Outage Measurement Methodology, 108 -- 4.12 Impact of External Interference, 109 -- 4.13 Conclusion, 109 -- References, 110 -- 5 Radio System Components 114 -- 5.1 Microwave Signal Transmission Lines, 115 -- 5.2 Antenna Support Structures, 121 -- 5.2.1 Lattice Towers, 122 -- 5.2.2 Self-Supporting Towers, 122 -- 5.2.3 Guyed Towers, 122 -- 5.2.4 Monopoles, 124 -- 5.2.5 Architecturally Designed Towers, 125 -- 5.2.6 Building-Mounted Antennas, 126 -- 5.2.7 Camouflaged Structures, 126 -- 5.2.8 Temporary Structures, 126 -- 5.3 Tower Rigidity and Integrity, 127 -- 5.4 Transmission Line Management, 127 -- 5.5 Antennas, 127 -- 5.6 Near Field, 137 -- 5.7 Fundamental Antenna Limitations, 143 -- 5.8 Propagation, 143 -- 5.9 Radio System Performance as a Function of Radio Path Propagation, 145 -- 5.9.1 Flat Fading, 146 -- 5.9.2 Dispersive Fading, 148 -- 5.10 Radio System Performance as a Function of Radio Path Terrain, 149 -- 5.11 Antenna Placement, 153 -- 5.12 Frequency Band Characteristics, 155 -- 5.13 Path Distances, 157 -- 5.A Appendix, 159 -- 5.A.1 Antenna Isotropic Gain and Free Space Loss, 159.

5.A.2 Free Space Loss, 163 -- 5.A.3 Antenna Isotropic Gain, 164 -- 5.A.4 Circular (Parabolic) Antennas, 166 -- 5.A.5 Square (Panel) Antennas, 167 -- 5.A.6 11-GHz Two-foot Antennas, 168 -- 5.A.7 Tower Rigidity Requirements, 169 -- References, 172 -- 6 Designing and Operating Microwave Systems 175 -- 6.1 Why Microwave Radio? 175 -- 6.2 Radio System Design, 175 -- 6.3 Designing Low Frequency Radio Networks, 179 -- 6.4 Designing High Frequency Radio Networks, 182 -- 6.4.1 Hub and Spoke, 183 -- 6.4.2 Nested Rings, 184 -- 6.5 Field Measurements, 185 -- 6.6 User Data Interfaces, 185 -- 6.7 Operations and Maintenance, 202 -- 6.7.1 Fault Management, 203 -- 6.7.2 Alarms and Status, 206 -- 6.7.3 Performance Management, 207 -- 6.8 Maintaining the Network, 210 -- References, 217 -- 7 Hypothetical Reference Circuits 220 -- 7.1 North American (NA) Availability Objectives, 220 -- 7.1.1 NA Bell System Hypothetical Reference Circuit-Availability Objectives, 220 -- 7.1.2 NA Telcordia Hypothetical Reference Circuit-Availability Objectives, 222 -- 7.2 North American Quality Objectives, 225 -- 7.2.1 Residual BER, 225 -- 7.2.2 Burst Errored Seconds, 225 -- 7.2.3 DS1 Errored Seconds, 225 -- 7.2.4 DS3 Errored Seconds, 225 -- 7.3 International Objectives, 225 -- 7.3.1 International Telecommunication Union Availability Objectives, 228 -- 7.4 International Telecommunication Union Quality Objectives, 236 -- 7.4.1 Legacy Quality Objectives, 236 -- 7.4.2 Current Quality Objectives, 240 -- 7.5 Error-Performance Relationship Among BER, BBER, and SESs, 245 -- References, 247 -- 8 Microwave Antenna Theory 249 -- 8.1 Common Parameters, 251 -- 8.2 Passive Reflectors, 252 -- 8.2.1 Passive Reflector Far Field Radiation Pattern, 253 -- 8.2.2 Passive Reflector Near Field Power Density, 255 -- 8.3 Circular (Parabolic) Antennas, 256 -- 8.3.1 Circular (Parabolic) Antenna Far Field Radiation Pattern, 256 -- 8.3.2 Circular (Parabolic) Antenna Efficiency, 260 -- 8.3.3 Circular (Parabolic) Antenna Beamwidth, 261.

8.3.4 Circular (Parabolic) Antenna Near Field Power Density, 264 -- 8.3.5 General Near Field Power Density Calculations, 265 -- 8.3.6 Circular Antenna Near Field Power Density Transitions, 272 -- 8.3.7 Circular Antenna Far Field Reference Power, 273 -- 8.4 Square Flat Panel Antennas, 274 -- 8.4.1 Square Antenna Beamwidth, 276 -- 8.4.2 Square Near Field Power Density, 279 -- 8.4.3 Square Antenna Far Field Reference Power, 288 -- 8.4.4 Square Near Field Power Density Transitions, 289 -- 8.5 Regulatory Near Field Power Density Limits, 290 -- 8.6 Practical Near Field Power Calculations, 290 -- 8.6.1 A Parabolic Antenna Near Field Power Example Calculation, 293 -- 8.6.2 Safety Limits, 294 -- 8.7 Near Field Antenna Coupling Loss, 296 -- 8.7.1 Antenna to Antenna Near Field Coupling Loss, 296 -- 8.7.2 Coupling Loss between Identical Antennas, 300 -- 8.7.3 Coupling Loss between Different-Sized Circular Antennas, 300 -- 8.7.4 Coupling Loss between Different-Sized Square Antennas, 301 -- 8.7.5 Parabolic Antenna to Passive Reflector Near Field Coupling Loss, 302 -- 8.7.6 Coupling Loss for Circular Antenna and Square Reflector, 303 -- 8.7.7 Coupling Loss for Square Antenna and Square Reflector (Both Aligned), 305 -- 8.7.8 Back-to-Back Square Passive Reflector Near Field Coupling Loss, 306 -- 8.A Appendix, 307 -- 8.A.1 Circular Antenna Numerical Power Calculations, 307 -- 8.A.2 Square Antenna Numerical Power Calculations, 311 -- 8.A.3 Bessel Functions, 315 -- References, 318 -- 9 Multipath Fading 320 -- 9.1 Flat and Dispersive Fading, 329 -- 9.A Appendix, 338 -- 9.A.1 Fading Statistics, 338 -- 9.A.2 DFM Equation Derivation, 339 -- 9.A.3 Characteristics of Receiver Signature Curves and DFM, 342 -- References, 344 -- 10 Microwave Radio Diversity 348 -- 10.1 Space Diversity, 350 -- 10.2 Dual-Frequency Diversity, 354 -- 10.3 Quad (Space and Frequency) Diversity, 357 -- 10.4 Hybrid Diversity, 358 -- 10.5 Multiline Frequency Diversity, 358 -- 10.6 Crossband Multiline, 365 -- 10.7 Angle Diversity, 366.

10.7.1 Angle Diversity Configurations, 368 -- 10.7.2 Angle Diversity Performance, 371 -- 10.A Appendix, 372 -- 10.A.1 Optimizing Space Diversity Vertical Spacing, 372 -- 10.A.2 Additional Optimization, 377 -- References, 380 -- 11 Rain Fading 384 -- 11.1 Point (Single-Location) Rain Loss (Fade) Estimation, 386 -- 11.2 Path Rain-Fade Estimation, 390 -- 11.3 Point-to-Path Length Conversion Factor, 398 -- 11.4 Single-Location Rain Rate R, 398 -- 11.5 City Rain Rate Data for North America, 407 -- 11.6 New Rain Zones, 430 -- 11.7 Worst-Month Rain Rates, 430 -- 11.8 Point Rain Rate Variability, 439 -- 11.9 Examples of Rain-Loss-Dominated Path Designs, 441 -- 11.10 Conclusions, 444 -- 11.A Appendix, 446 -- 11.A.1 North American City Rain Data Index, 446 -- References, 458 -- 12 Ducting and Obstruction Fading 461 -- 12.1 Introduction, 461 -- 12.1.1 Power Fading, 463 -- 12.2 Superrefraction (Ducting), 465 -- 12.3 Subrefraction (Earth Bulge or Obstruction), 469 -- 12.4 Minimizing Obstruction Fading, 471 -- 12.4.1 Path Clearance (Antenna Vertical Placement) Criteria, 471 -- 12.5 Obstruction Fading Model, 477 -- 12.6 Obstruction Fading Estimation, 479 -- 12.7 Bell Labs Seasonal Parameter Charts, 483 -- 12.8 Refractivity Data Limitations, 484 -- 12.9 Reviewing the Bell Labs Seasonal Parameter Charts, 485 -- 12.10 Obstruction Fading Parameter Estimation, 486 -- 12.11 Evaluating Path Clearance Criteria, 487 -- 12.A Appendix: North American Refractivity Index Charts, 490 -- 12.B Appendix: Worldwide Obstruction Fading Data, 491 -- References, 511 -- 13 Reflections and Obstructions 514 -- 13.1 Theoretical Rough Earth Reflection Coefficient, 514 -- 13.1.1 Gaussian Model, 516 -- 13.1.2 Uniform Model, 517 -- 13.2 Scattering from Earth Terrain, 517 -- 13.3 Practical Earth Reflection Coefficient, 519 -- 13.4 Reflection Location, 519 -- 13.5 Smooth Earth Divergence Factor, 522 -- 13.6 Reflections from Objects Near a Path, 523 -- 13.7 Fresnel Zones, 525 -- 13.8 Antenna Launch Angle (Transmit or Receive Antenna Takeoff Angle), 527.

13.9 Grazing Angle, 527 -- 13.10 Additional Path Distance, 528 -- 13.11 Estimating the Effect of a Signal Reflected from the Earth, 528 -- 13.12 Flat Earth Obstruction Path Loss, 529 -- 13.13 Smooth Earth Obstruction Loss, 529 -- 13.14 Knife-Edge Obstruction Path Gain, 530 -- 13.15 Rounded-Edge Obstruction Path Gain, 531 -- 13.16 Complex Terrain Obstruction Losses, 532 -- 13.A Appendix, 536 -- 13.A.1 Smooth Earth Reflection Coefficient, 536 -- 13.A.2 Procedure for Calculating RH AND RV, 536 -- 13.A.3 Earth Parameters for Frequencies Between 100 kHz and 1 GHz, 538 -- 13.A.4 Earth Parameters for Frequencies Between 1 GHz and 100 GHz, 540 -- 13.A.5 Comments on Conductivity and Permittivity, 541 -- 13.A.6 Reflection Coefficients, 541 -- References, 555 -- 14 Digital Receiver Interference 559 -- 14.1 Composite Interference (T/T) Criterion, 559 -- 14.2 Carrier-to-Interference Ratio (C/I) Criterion, 560 -- 14.3 Measuring C/I, 560 -- 14.4 Estimating C/I, 561 -- 14.5 Threshold to Interference (T/I) Criterion, 562 -- 14.6 Why Estimate T/I, 563 -- 14.7 T/I Estimation-Method One, 564 -- 14.8 T/I Estimation-Method Two, 565 -- 14.9 Conclusion, 569 -- 14.A Appendix, 569 -- 14.A.1 Basic 10−6 Threshold for Gaussian (Radio Front End) Noise Only, 569 -- 14.A.2 Using a Spectrum Mask as a Default Spectrum Curve, 570 -- 14.B Appendix: Receiver Parameters, 571 -- References, 572 -- 15 Network Reliability Calculations 573 -- 15.1 Hardware Reliability, 574 -- 15.2 System Reliability, 577 -- 15.2.1 Equipment in Series, 577 -- 15.2.2 Multiple Equipment in Parallel, 578 -- 15.2.3 Nested Equipment, 579 -- 15.2.4 Meshed Duplex Configuration, 579 -- 15.3 Communication Systems, 579 -- 15.4 Application to Radio Configurations, 580 -- 15.5 Spare Unit Requirements, 580 -- 15.6 BER Estimation, 583 -- 15.6.1 Time to Transmit N Digits, 585 -- References, 585 -- 16 Path Performance Calculations 587 -- 16.1 Path Loss, 588 -- 16.2 Fade Margin, 589 -- 16.3 Path Performance, 589 -- 16.4 Allowance for Interference, 590.

16.5 North American (NA) Path Performance Calculations, 590 -- 16.5.1 Vigants-Barnett Multipath Fading (Barnett, 1972; Vigants, 1975)-NA, 591 -- 16.5.2 Cross-Polarization Discrimination Degradation Outages-NA, 596 -- 16.5.3 Space Diversity: Flat-Fading Improvement-NA, 596 -- 16.5.4 Space Diversity: Dispersive-Fading Improvement-NA, 599 -- 16.5.5 Dual Frequency Diversity: Flat-Fading Improvement-NA, 599 -- 16.5.6 Dual Frequency Diversity: Dispersive-Fading Improvement-NA, 600 -- 16.5.7 Quad (Space and Frequency) Diversity-NA, 601 -- 16.5.8 Hybrid Diversity-NA, 601 -- 16.5.9 Multiline Frequency Diversity-NA, 601 -- 16.5.10 Angle Diversity-NA, 602 -- 16.5.11 Upfading-NA, 603 -- 16.5.12 Shallow Flat Fading-NA, 603 -- 16.6 International Telecommunication Union-Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) Path Performance Calculations, 604 -- 16.6.1 Flat Fading-ITU-R, 605 -- 16.6.2 Dispersive Fading-ITU-R, 606 -- 16.6.3 Cross-Polarization Discrimination Degradation Outages-ITU-R, 608 -- 16.6.4 Upfading-ITU-R, 609 -- 16.6.5 Shallow Flat Fading-ITU-R, 609 -- 16.6.6 Space Diversity Improvement-ITU-R, 610 -- 16.6.7 Dual-Frequency Diversity Improvement-ITU-R, 611 -- 16.6.8 Quad (Space and Frequency) Diversity-ITU-R, 611 -- 16.6.9 Angle Diversity Improvement-ITU-R, 613 -- 16.6.10 Other Diversity Improvements-ITU-R, 614 -- 16.7 Rain Fading and Obstruction Fading (NA and ITU-R), 614 -- 16.8 Comparing the North American and the ITU-R Flat-Fading Estimates, 614 -- 16.8.1 Vigants-Barnett Flat-Fading Estimation for Bell Labs Path, 614 -- 16.8.2 ITU-R Flat-Fading Estimation for Bell Labs Path, 615 -- 16.9 Diffraction and Vegetation Attenuation, 621 -- 16.10 Fog Attenuation, 622 -- 16.11 Air Attenuation, 624 -- 16.A Appendix, 631 -- References, 649 -- A Microwave Formulas and Tables 653 -- A.1 General, 653 -- Table A.1 General, 653 -- Table A.2 Scientific and Engineering Notation, 654 -- Table A.3 Emission Designator, 655 -- Table A.4 Typical Commercial Parabolic Antenna Gain (dBi), 656 -- Table A.5 Typical Rectangular Waveguide, 656.

Table A.6 Typical Rectangular Waveguide Data, 657 -- Table A.7 Typical Copper Corrugated Elliptical Waveguide Loss, 657 -- Table A.8 Typical Copper Circular Waveguide Loss, 658 -- Table A.9 Rectangular Waveguide Attenuation Factors, 659 -- Table A.10 CommScope Elliptical Waveguide Attenuation Factors, 659 -- Table A.11 RFS Elliptical Waveguide Attenuation Factors, 660 -- Table A.12 Elliptical Waveguide Cutoff Frequencies, 660 -- Table A.13 Circular Waveguide Cutoff Frequencies, 661 -- Table A.14 Typical Coaxial Microwave Connectors, 663 -- Table A.15 Coaxial Cable Velocity Factors, 664 -- Table A.16 50 Ohm Coaxial Cable Attenuation Factors, 664 -- Table A.17 Frequency Bands, General Users, 665 -- Table A.18 Frequency Bands, Fixed Point to Point Operators, 665 -- Table A.19 Frequency Bands, Radar, Space and Satellite Operators, 666 -- Table A.20 Frequency Bands, Electronic Warfare Operators, 666 -- Table A.21 Frequency Bands, Great Britain Operators, 666 -- Table A.22 Signal-to-Noise Ratio for Demodulator 10−6 BER, 667 -- A.2 Radio Transmission, 668 -- A.2.1 Unit Conversions, 668 -- A.2.2 Free Space Propagation Absolute Delay, 669 -- A.2.3 Waveguide Propagation Absolute Delay, 669 -- A.2.4 Coaxial Cable Propagation Absolute Delay, 669 -- A.2.5 Free Space Propagation Wavelength, 669 -- A.2.6 Dielectric Medium Propagation Wavelength, 669 -- A.2.7 Free Space Loss (dB), 670 -- A.2.8 Effective Radiated Power (ERP) and Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP), 670 -- A.2.9 Voltage Reflection Coefficient, 670 -- A.2.10 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio Maximum, 670 -- A.2.11 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio Minimum, 670 -- A.2.12 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio, 670 -- A.2.13 Power Reflection Coefficient, 671 -- A.2.14 Reflection Loss, 671 -- A.2.15 Return Loss, 671 -- A.2.16 Q (Quality) Factor (Figure of Merit for Resonant Circuits or Cavities), 671 -- A.2.17 Q (Quality) Factor (Figure of Merit for Optical Receivers), 672 -- A.2.18 Typical Long-Term Interference Objectives, 672 -- A.2.19 Frequency Planning Carrier-to-Interference Ratio (C/I), 672.

A.2.20 Noise Figure, Noise Factor, Noise Temperature, and Front End Noise, 672 -- A.2.21 Shannon's Formula for Theoretical Limit to Transmission Channel Capacity, 674 -- A.3 Antennas (Far Field), 675 -- A.3.1 General Microwave Aperture Antenna (Far Field) Gain (dBi), 675 -- A.3.2 General Microwave Antenna (Far Field) Relative Gain (dBi), 675 -- A.3.3 Parabolic (Circular) Microwave Antenna (Far Field) Gain (dBi), 675 -- A.3.4 Parabolic (Circular) Microwave Antenna Illumination Efficiency, 676 -- A.3.5 Panel (Square) Microwave Antenna (Far Field) Gain (dBi), 676 -- A.3.6 Panel (Square) Microwave Antenna Illumination Efficiency, 676 -- A.3.7 Angle Between Incoming and Outgoing Radio Signal Paths, C, for a Passive Reflector, 677 -- A.3.8 Signal Polarization Rotation Through a Passive Reflector, 678 -- A.3.9 Signal Effects of Polarization Rotation, 678 -- A.3.10 Passive Reflector (Far Field) Two-Way (Reception and Retransmission) Gain (dBi), 678 -- A.3.11 Rectangular Passive Reflector 3-dB Beamwidth (Degrees, in Horizontal Plane), 678 -- A.3.12 Elliptical Passive Reflector 3-dB Beamwidth (Degrees), 679 -- A.3.13 Circular Parabolic Antenna 3-dB Beamwidth (Degrees), 679 -- A.3.14 Passive Reflector Far Field Radiation Pattern Envelopes, 680 -- A.3.15 Inner Radius for the Antenna Far-Field Region, 681 -- A.4 Near-Field Power Density, 682 -- A.4.1 Circular Antennas, 682 -- A.4.2 Square Antennas, 682 -- A.5 Antennas (Close Coupled), 683 -- A.5.1 Coupling Loss LNF (dB) Between Two Antennas in the Near Field, 683 -- A.5.2 Coupling Loss LNF (dB) Between Identical Antennas, 683 -- A.5.3 Coupling Loss LNF (dB) Between Different-Sized Circular Antennas, 684 -- A.5.4 Coupling Loss LNF (dB) Between Different-Sized Square Antennas (Both Antennas Aligned), 684 -- A.5.5 Coupling Loss LNF (dB) for Antenna and Square Reflector in the Near Field, 685 -- A.5.6 Coupling Loss LNF (dB) for Circular Antenna and Square Reflector, 685 -- A.5.7 Coupling Loss LNF (dB) for Square Antenna and Square Reflector (Both Aligned), 686.

A.5.8 Two Back-to-Back Square Reflectors Combined Gain, 687 -- A.6 Path Geometry, 687 -- A.6.1 Horizons (Normal Refractivity over Spherical Earth), 687 -- A.6.2 Earth Curvature (Height Adjustment Used on Path Profiles), 688 -- A.6.3 Reflection Point, 688 -- A.6.4 Fresnel Zone Radius (Perpendicular to the Radio Path), 690 -- A.6.5 Fresnel Zone Projected onto the Earth's Surface, 690 -- A.6.6 Reflection Path Additional Distance, 691 -- A.6.7 Reflection Path Additional Delay, 691 -- A.6.8 Reflection Path Relative Amplitude, 691 -- A.6.9 Antenna Launch Angle, 691 -- A.6.10 Antenna Height Difference, 692 -- A.6.11 K Factor (From Launch Angles), 692 -- A.6.12 Refractive Index and K Factor (From Atmospheric Values), 693 -- A.7 Obstruction Loss, 693 -- A.7.1 Knife-Edge Obstruction Loss, 693 -- A.7.2 Rounded-Edge Obstruction Path Loss, 694 -- A.7.3 Smooth-Earth Obstruction Loss, 695 -- A.7.4 Infinite Flat Reflective Plane Obstruction Loss, 695 -- A.7.5 Reflection (Earth Roughness Scattering) Coefficient, 695 -- A.7.6 Divergence Coefficient from Earth, 696 -- A.7.7 Divergence Factor for a Cylinder, 697 -- A.7.8 Divergence Factor for a Sphere, 697 -- A.7.9 Signal Reflected from Flat Earth, 697 -- A.7.10 Ducting, 697 -- A.8 Mapping, 698 -- A.8.1 Path Length and Bearing, 698 -- A.9 Towers, 700 -- A.9.1 Three-Point Guyed Towers, 700 -- A.9.2 Three-Leg Self-Supporting Tower, 701 -- A.9.3 Four-Leg Self-Supporting Tower, 701 -- A.10 Interpolation, 702 -- A.10.1 Two-Dimensional Interpolation, 702 -- A.10.2 Three-Dimensional Interpolation, 705 -- B Personnel and Equipment Safety Considerations 709 -- B.1 General Safety Guidelines, 709 -- B.2 Equipment Protection, 711 -- B.3 Equipment Considerations, 712 -- B.4 Personnel Protective Equipment, 713 -- B.5 Accident Prevention Signs, 713 -- B.6 Tower Climbing, 713 -- B.7 Hand Tools, 715 -- B.8 Electrical Powered Tools, 715 -- B.9 Soldering Irons, 715 -- B.10 Ladders, 716 -- B.11 Hoisting or Moving Equipment, 716 -- B.12 Batteries, 717 -- B.13 Laser Safety Guidelines, 717.

B.14 Safe Use of Lasers and LED in Optical Fiber Communication Systems, 718 -- B.15 Optical Fiber Communication System (OFCS) Service Groups (SGs), 718 -- B.16 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD), 719 -- B.17 Maximum Permissible Microwave Radio RF Exposure, 720 -- B.18 Protect Other Radio Users [FCC], 720 -- B.19 PAUSE (Prevent all Unplanned Service Events) and Ask Yourself (Verizon and AT&T Operations), 721 -- B.20 Protect Yourself (Bell System Operations), 721 -- B.21 Parting Comment, 721 -- Index 723.

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